Mammographic density, blood telomere length and lipid peroxidation.

Extensive mammographic density is a strong risk factor for breast cancer, but may also be an indicator of biological age. In this study we examined whether mammographic density is related to blood telomere length, a potential marker of susceptibility to age-related disease. We measured mammographic density by a computer assisted method and blood telomere length using a validated PCR method. Urinary malondialdehyde (MDA), a marker of lipid peroxidation, was measured in 24 hour urine collections. In the 342 women examined telomere length was negatively correlated with age, was lower in postmenopausal compared to premenopausal women and in smokers compared to non-smokers, and was positively correlated with urinary MDA. Telomere length was not associated with percent mammographic density or dense area, before or after adjustment for risk factors and MDA. However, there was a significant interaction between telomere length and MDA in their association with mammographic density. At lower levels of MDA, mammographic density and telomere length were inversely associated; while at high levels of MDA, there was evidence of a J-shaped association between mammographic density and telomere length. Further work is need to replicate these results and to examine the association of mammographic density with age-related chronic disease and mortality.

Break-induced replication requires DNA damage-induced phosphorylation of Pif1 and leads to telomere lengthening.

Broken replication forks result in DNA breaks that are normally repaired via homologous recombination or break induced replication (BIR). Mild insufficiency in the replicative ligase Cdc9 in budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae resulted in a population of cells with persistent DNA damage, most likely due to broken replication forks, constitutive activation of the DNA damage checkpoint and longer telomeres. This telomere lengthening required functional telomerase, the core DNA damage signaling cascade Mec1-Rad9-Rad53, and the components of the BIR repair pathway - Rad51, Rad52, Pol32, and Pif1. The Mec1-Rad53 induced phosphorylation of Pif1, previously found necessary for inhibition of telomerase at double strand breaks, was also important for the role of Pif1 in BIR and telomere elongation in cdc9-1 cells. Two other mutants with impaired DNA replication, cdc44-5 and rrm3Δ, were similar to cdc9-1: their long telomere phenotype was dependent on the Pif1 phosphorylation locus. We propose a model whereby the passage of BIR forks through telomeres promotes telomerase activity and leads to telomere lengthening.

PIF1 disruption or NBS1 hypomorphism does not affect chromosome healing or fusion resulting from double-strand breaks near telomeres in murine embryonic stem cells.

Telomerase serves to maintain telomeric repeat sequences at the ends of chromosomes. However, telomerase can also add telomeric repeat sequences at DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), a process called chromosome healing. Here, we employed a method of inducing DSBs near telomeres to query the role of two proteins, PIF1 and NBS1, in chromosome healing in mammalian cells. PIF1 was investigated because the PIF1 homolog in Saccharomyces cerevisiae inhibits chromosome healing, as shown by a 1000-fold increase in chromosome in PIF1-deficient cells. NBS1 was investigated because the functional homolog of NBS1 in S. cerevisiae, Xrs2, is part of the Mre11/Rad50/Xrs2 complex that is required for chromosome healing due to its role in the processing of DSBs and recruitment of telomerase. We found that disruption of mPif1 had no detectable effect on the frequency of chromosome healing at DSBs near telomeres in murine embryonic stem cells. Moreover, the Nbs1(ΔB) hypomorph, which is defective in the processing of DSBs, also had no detectable effect on the frequency of chromosome healing, DNA degradation, or gross chromosome rearrangements (GCRs) that result from telomeric DSBs. Although we cannot rule out small changes in chromosome healing using this system, it is clear from our results that knockout of PIF1 or the Nbs1(ΔB) hypomorph does not result in large differences in chromosome healing in murine cells. These results represent the first genetic assessment of the role of these proteins in chromosome healing in mammals, and suggest that murine cells have evolved mechanisms to ensure the functional redundancy of Pif1 or Nbs1 in the regulation of chromosome healing.

Troglitazone suppresses telomerase activity independently of PPARgamma in estrogen-receptor negative breast cancer cells.

BACKGROUND: Breast cancer is one the highest causes of female cancer death worldwide. Many standard chemotherapeutic agents currently used to treat breast cancer are relatively non-specific and act on all rapidly dividing cells. In recent years, more specific targeted therapies have been introduced. It is known that telomerase is active in over 90% of breast cancer tumors but inactive in adjacent normal tissues. The prevalence of active telomerase in breast cancer patients makes telomerase an attractive therapeutic target. Recent evidence suggests that telomerase activity can be suppressed by peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma). However, its effect on telomerase regulation in breast cancer has not been investigated. METHODS: In this study, we investigated the effect of the PPARgamma ligand, troglitazone, on telomerase activity in the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. Real time RT-PCR and telomerase activity assays were used to evaluate the effect of troglitazone. MDA-MB-231 cells had PPARgamma expression silenced using shRNA interference. RESULTS: We demonstrated that troglitazone reduced the mRNA expression of hTERT and telomerase activity in the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line. Troglitazone reduced telomerase activity even in the absence of PPARgamma. In agreement with this result, we found no correlation between PPARgamma and hTERT mRNA transcript levels in breast cancer patients. Statistical significance was determined using Pearson correlation and the paired Student's t test. CONCLUSIONS: To our knowledge, this is the first time that the effect of troglitazone on telomerase activity in breast cancer cells has been investigated. Our data suggest that troglitazone may be used as an anti-telomerase agent; however, the mechanism underlying this inhibitory effect remains to be determined.

The N-terminus of hTERT contains a DNA-binding domain and is required for telomerase activity and cellular immortalization.

Telomerase defers the onset of telomere damage-induced signaling and cellular senescence by adding DNA onto chromosome ends. The ability of telomerase to elongate single-stranded telomeric DNA depends on the reverse transcriptase domain of TERT, and also relies on protein:DNA contacts outside the active site. We purified the N-terminus of human TERT (hTEN) from Escherichia coli, and found that it binds DNA with a preference for telomeric sequence of a certain length and register. hTEN interacted with the C-terminus of hTERT in trans to reconstitute enzymatic activity in vitro. Mutational analysis of hTEN revealed that amino acids Y18 and Q169 were required for telomerase activity in vitro, but not for the interaction with telomere DNA or the C-terminus. These mutants did not reconstitute telomerase activity in cells, maintain telomere length, or extend cellular lifespan. In addition, we found that T116/T117/S118, while dispensable in vitro, were required for cellular immortalization. Thus, the interactions of hTEN with telomere DNA and the C-terminus of hTERT are functionally separable from the role of hTEN in telomere elongation activity in vitro and in vivo, suggesting other roles for the protein and nucleic acid interactions of hTEN within, and possibly outside, the telomerase catalytic core.

Telomerase reverse transcriptase-dependent telomere equilibration mitigates tissue dysfunction in mTert heterozygotes.

Autosomal dominant mutations in telomere-associated factors elicit a disease known as dyskeratosis congenita (DKC), and patients suffer proliferative abnormalities associated with telomere erosion. Mice that are heterozygous for telomerase genes (Tert or Terc, hereafter referred to as mTert and mTerc) are useful models of telomerase haploinsufficiency, but do not strictly mimic DKC. In strains with long telomeres (>60 kbp), animals that are heterozygous for mTert undergo telomere erosion for nine generations and remain phenotypically normal. In an mTerc heterozygous strain with short telomeres (<15 kbp), early mortality arises after five to six generations, but dyskeratosis occurs only upon the further loss of mPot1b. We show that prolonged mTert heterozygosity (for greater than ten generations) did not elicit disease, even upon heterozygote interbreeding, and that telomeres reset to wild-type lengths. This lengthening did not occur in nullizygotes, and short telomeres inherited from mTert null parents were rescued only in heterozygous progeny. In the bone marrow, nullizygotes remained competent for radioprotection for three generations. Thus, gradual telomere erosion in the presence of telomerase may enable subsequent telomere extension, similar to that described in budding yeast. We speculate whether such adaptation occurs in normal human cells (or whether it could be induced in DKC-derived cells), and whether it might mitigate the impact of telomerase inhibition upon stem cells during cancer therapy.

Telomere maintenance and survival in saccharomyces cerevisiae in the absence of telomerase and RAD52.

Telomeres are essential features of linear genomes that are crucial for chromosome stability. Telomeric DNA is usually replenished by telomerase. Deletion of genes encoding telomerase components leads to telomere attrition with each cycle of DNA replication, eventually causing cell senescence or death. In the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain W303, telomerase-null populations bypass senescence and, unless EXO1 is also deleted, this survival is RAD52 dependent. Unexpectedly, we found that the S. cerevisiae strain S288C could survive the removal of RAD52 and telomerase at a low frequency without additional gene deletions. These RAD52-independent survivors were propagated stably and exhibited a telomere organization typical of recombination between telomeric DNA tracts, and in diploids behaved as a multigenic trait. The polymerase-delta subunit Pol32 was dispensable for the maintenance of RAD52-independent survivors. The incidence of this rare escape was not affected by deletion of other genes necessary for RAD52-dependent survival, but correlated with initial telomere length. If W303 strains lacking telomerase and RAD52 first underwent telomere elongation, rare colonies could then bypass senescence. We suggest that longer telomeres provide a more proficient substrate for a novel telomere maintenance mechanism that does not rely on telomerase, RAD52, or POL32.

No attenuation of the ATM-dependent DNA damage response in murine telomerase-deficient cells.

Inactivation of mammalian telomerase leads to telomere attrition, eventually culminating in uncapped telomeres, which elicit a DNA damage response and cell cycle arrest or death. In some instances, telomerase modulation evokes a response not obviously attributable to changes in telomere length. One such example is the suppression of the DNA damage response (DDR) and changes in histone modification that occur upon repression of the telomerase reverse transcriptase, TERT, in human primary cells [K. Masutomi, R. Possemato, J.M. Wong, J.L. Currier, Z. Tothova, J.B. Manola, S. Ganesan, P.M. Lansdorp, K. Collins and W.C. Hahn, The telomerase reverse transcriptase regulates chromatin state and DNA damage responses, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (2005) 8222-8227]. Here, we evaluate the contribution of TERT to the DDR in murine Tert(-/-) cells without critically shortened telomeres. We treated mTert(-/-) embryonic stem (ES) cells and murine embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) with etoposide and irradiation, and assessed the status of p53(pS15), 53BP1, ATM(pS1981), SMC1(pS957), and gammaH2AX by indirect immunofluorescence or western blotting. In four independently derived mTert(-/-) ES cell lines, there was no significant difference in the induction of gammaH2AX, 53BP1 foci, or the phosphorylation of ATM targets (ATM, SMC1, p53) between wildtype and mTert(-/-) ES cells and MEFs. A slight difference in post-translational modification of histones H3 and H4 was observed in a subset of mTert(-/-) ES cells, however this difference was reflected in the cellular levels of H3 and H4. Thus, in contrast to previous studies in human cells, the absence of Tert does not overtly affect the ATM-dependent response to DNA damage in murine cells.